Audit Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Audit - Case Study Example The auditor should consider whether to acknowledge the commitment since inherent risk increases the generally risk of the audit. It is often beneficial to set aside transactions into three types- routine, non-routine, and evaluation when valuing inherent risk.   Little Digger’s auditors may not use the system that gives the precise outcome to them, the result is mainly inherited by the risk factors as this system is applied to just a small section of the population as opposed to the whole population. This is prone to the misstatement that is said to be the inherent risk. The term inherent risk is applied in auditing and accounting, if there is higher likelihood of material misstatement within the  financial statement, the inherent risk is considered high .It is also used for the misstatement of the business that is there in the financial statement. If the auditors will not lookout at these inherent perils, there would be more inaccuracies in the financial statement, which certainly will lead the organization to the incorrect direction, and consequently the financial statement will not be presenting accurate and just outlook. The auditors had to come up with ways of making an error free or inherent risk free financial statement in order to make their company move in the precise direction by formulating correct assessments .As per the auditor’s opinion, inherent risk improves the auditor's peril as the inherent risk is an element of it. It is therefore essential to minimize the inherent risk in order to diminish the auditor’s risk. Because of this, the auditors can make improper decisions because the proof to back such view will be false.   Detection risk Detection risk is essentially the risk that the measures applied by the auditors will fail to identify material misstatements in the financial accounts. Auditors in Little Diggers Ltd have to ensure accuracy and efficiency in the business with regard to the asset management, transactio ns, and their documentation in the monetary accounts. Besides this, the auditors look for various methods that aid them in measuring future risks that may affect their business. Auditors use a variety of methods to measure the risk, mainly the  risk due to material misstatement Detection risk is allied to other relations i.e. the trade risk, material misstatement risk and its two major elements, which are the control risk and the inherent risk in general. If the material misstatement risk rises, it will lower the detection risk hence the auditors risk increases. The material risk increases when its essentials; control risk and inherent risk increase. The correlation of the risks will assist the administration and the auditors to try such diverse useful ways that will help reduce on risk levels. Control risk Control risk is the likelihood that a material misstatement exists in an allegation since either that misstatement was not barred from entering entity’s economic stateme nts or it was not identified and approved by the internal control system of the unit. It is the duty of the organization and those responsible with authority to execute internal control system and uphold it properly. However if internal control system is discovering and correcting misstatements then inherent harms will creep in

Writting- Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Writting- - Essay Example I was to sit and work from this part of the office. The organization where I started my internship deals in health care. They run about twelve health care homes where patients are admitted. Moreover, they also deal in providing medical equipment, like wheel chairs, and other medical supplies, including insulin and other medication to vendors, who, in turn, provide these to patients. My work involves conducting patient satisfaction surveys over the phone. I have to make calls to the patients and ask them various questions regarding their satisfaction; this includes asking them if the delivery of the medical equipment was timely and in working order. After each survey, I have to submit the findings to my supervisor who analyzes them and then puts the information into the database. I also have to arrange and organize the files of the patients who apply to the home health aid organization. This includes the files of the patients who get accepted to the homes as well as those whose applications are rejected by the organization. I have to arrange and sort through these files and ensure that the filing remains up to date. It is interesting work as not only do I work with filing, but I also interact with patients. This helps me to stay in touch with the people who are involved in the organization – I stay in contact with my colleagues as well as the patients who come to the organization. I feel more fulfilled at my work place because I believe that my job helps to improve the organization that has employed me; I am involved in gathering feedback from the patients with regard to the organization, and then handing it to my supervisor who makes sure that the information is noted down for any action that may be required. My internship, therefore, gives me a sense of accomplishment, and I am glad to be given this

Antisocial Personality Disorder Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Antisocial Personality Disorder - Research Paper Example itful because of, say, consistent lying or stealing; aggressive; irritable; irresponsible toward his duties; and, most of all, does not show remorse over his behavior. This paper is going to discuss the causes, symptoms and treatment of APD. What causes APD to occur has always been in focus. Genetics alone cannot answer it because if this was the case, then the offspring of APD sufferers would essentially carry this disorder. But it is not this simple. Research has suggested that APD is a result of a combination of both hereditary and environmental factors. The latter may include risk factors such as child abuse, substance abuse, neglect, deprivation, having faced prejudice, being involved in animal cruelty during childhood, sexual harassment, reading disorder in children, mental torture, and so on. This disorder is more common among males (Swanson, Bland and Newman). Since there are no clear cut biological causes for APD, we can talk about the risk factors involved in this disease. Amygdala is that part of the brain that deals with the showing of sympathy toward the happy or sad expressions of other people, and also enables one to accept mistakes and learn lessons from them. APD sufferers are said to be having small amygdale with refrains them from understanding or showing regard to other people’s feelings or show remorse. This disease may be passed on genetically but shows itself when it is combined with environment factors as described earlier. An individual with APD breaks laws, deceives others, lies, steals, is disrespectful and violent, and is not at all concerned about safety or feelings of others. This all leads to violation of other people’s rights. A major symptom is that the APD patient is indifferent to what harm he has caused to others due to his criminal behavior and shows no concern about his hurting others emotionally. He is also apt to commit actions that make him liable for getting arrested. For example, he often gets involved in physical

Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 42

Philosophy - Essay Example Rationalism believes that knowledge is innate or inborn while learning results from intuition (Lawhead 15). It supports the Priori knowledge idea that states that knowledge comes before experience. Philosophers that support this argument include Leibniz, Kant and Descartes. Conversely, empiricism states that knowledge comes from experience (Lawhead 56). Empiricism supports the idea of posteriori that means that knowledge is dependent solely on experience. Philosophers including Humes, Locke and Berkeley support this idea (Lawhead 59). According to rationalism, all knowledge is considered to be innate. In other words, we are born with the knowledge to think logically and answer questions. Rationalism tends to be similar to mathematics in so many ways hence requires no knowledge or observation. One of the philosophers that strongly support rationalism is Descartes. He was quite interesting as he employed skepticism to doubt his own knowledge. He doubted everything until he found a single idea that he could not doubt (Lawhead 61). This was his existence. He argued that he could not depend on his senses as there was a demon controlling his thoughts. It can be concluded that Descartes doubted everything but his existence. Being able to think logically and knowing his existence made the argument sound and valid. Rationalism states that all knowledge comes from the mind. It is concerned with absolute truths that are universally accepted. This is known to be one of the strongest points of this argument (Lawhead 67). This approach encourages all individuals to be rational thinkers and think things through before they accept them to be the truth. On the other hand, it is difficult to apply in every situation in life owing to its abstract nature. Moreover, it sidelines intuition and instinct that are forms of knowledge. We must have experienced something to know that it exists. How can we know

Triple Bottom Line Essay Example for Free

Triple Bottom Line Essay Introduction: ‘Triple Bottom Line’ is increasingly attaining popularity as a conceptual framework for the purpose of measuring the level of business performance. The term was being coined by John Elkington, in his book entitled â€Å"Cannibals with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business†. John Elkington has been the co-founder of the business consultancy SustainAbility. ‘Triple Bottom Line’ could be understood in a broad sense, as the range of values which companies need to uphold such as social, environmental and economic. In mere practical terms, the concept of triple bottom line intends to take into account the social and environmental performance of the company along with its financial performance. (The triple bottom line Business and Sustainable Development: A Global guide) The ‘triple bottom line’ indicates the point at which the corporate interests meet the societal interests. It is a novel method of measuring the bottom line, wherein profits tend to move along with the social as well as environmental performance and a method of understanding the concept of sustainability which is being considered to be often-fuzzy. (The Triple Bottom Line: How today’s Best-Run Companies are Achieving Economic, Social, and Environmental Success And How You Can Too) Summary Article: 1 Wayne Norman and Chris MacDonald in their article â€Å"Getting to the Bottom of Triple Bottom Line† state that by dedicating themselves to the concept of â€Å"Triple Bottom Line† it shows as if corporations are forming a more concrete as well as verifiable dedication to environment and society. But in reality, it allows the companies to virtually make no commitment at all. As a result of no real bottom lines for calculation relating to society or environment, companies do not have to be bothered about having these â€Å"bottom lines† in comparison to other firms which are within or without of their sector; nor is there any definite worry pertaining to the firm being considered to have reducing environmental as well as societal â€Å"bottom lines† over the various years or under the leadership of the present Chief Executive Officer of the company. Without a complete reliable collection of these reports along with the handy filing system, comparability over a period of time for one firm would be difficult as well as time-consuming. The company could also alter the indicating factors it would choose in order to report on over time. The authors emphasize further that on the one hand, the fact that the firms have created a social report or that of a code of ethics gives us less information with regard to a firm’s real dedication towards the principles being presented in the documents. It is also considered to be relatively of less cost in order to produce these documents, and particularly if they are vague, they do not usually bring any serious risks pertaining for a company. On the other hand, both the kinds of documents could play an important part in a company’s serious technique in order to improve upon its ethical as well as societal performance along with trying to integrate this objective into its boundary of corporate culture. The authors conclude that it is their understanding that clear as well as meaningful principles are the most likely to cater to companies of the latter kind; and that vague as well as literally less meaningful principles like those intended by the Triple Bottom Line are best suited only for promoting hypocrisy. (Getting to the Bottom of â€Å"Triple Bottom Line†) Article: 2 The author Steven F. Hayward in their article â€Å"The Triple Bottom Line: Authentic New Model or Tripartite Nonsense?† states that to the bottom level of profit-and-loss is being included two more groups which have their own balance sheets and these are environmental quality as well as social justice and it is what is being considered as the ‘triple bottom line’. However the author states that by including the term â€Å"social† to the concept of justice does not realistically include the values of justice. In real terms social justice is a disingenuous effort to turn justice by relating legitimacy in relation to a redistributive agenda. Further, with regard to environmental quality, most of the companies, particularly manufacturing companies, have emissions as well as resource-use profiles that could be brought up for measurement and improved by several methods. To add to it, most of the large corporations now tend to create annual environmental reports along with annual financial reports, mentioning the developments made by the firm on the environmental aspect. However most of these gains are considered to be just ‘efficiency gains’ which could be considered to be profitable in several cases, but a single-dimensional attention on efficiency gains removes taking into account both the opportunity cost of the working capital as well as the trained personnel in order to attain such efficiency gains against other tasks as well as any consideration with regard to the internal rate of return IRR on the company’s capital. A more general initiative has tended to elevate the concept of triple bottom line to that of a board level issue. However some of the environmentalists are not wasting their time for the purpose of serious conceptual efforts and have really started to warn the investors that firms that do not listen to the call of the triple bottom line will actually witness their market value to decline in the years to come. Steven F. Hayward provides several examples in this article of how environmentalists are trying to pressurize corporations to adopt social justice and environmental policies as part of their company policy. However examples of Enron’s bankruptcy shows that environmentalists are making their efforts to make corporations into social service units following a statist agenda. But this is something which market-oriented companies are not supposed to follow. (The Triple Bottom Line: Authentic New Model or Tripartite Nonsense?) Article: 3 The author Chris MacDonald in his article on â€Å"Ethics, jargon, and the triple bottom line† states that the supporters of the concept of ‘triple bottom line’ are not satisfied with the concept being just another form of a metaphor and they have made all efforts to make it into a full-fledged management concept and it is now one of the dominant as well as the progressive management concepts of the present day world. And the popularity of the concept tends to be skyrocketing. The author states that that the efforts of conscientious business managers in order to attend to the societal as well as the environmental implications of their business dealings are not at all out of importance. Knowledgeable and far-sighted managers had understood that such activities would tend to have the dual advantages of being right from both an ethical as well as the financial side. However it is not clear still that the concept of ‘triple bottom line’ adds anything valuable as to what the conscientious managers are already been doing. Further as it does not give any concrete and reliable measures to analyze the performance, the concept of ‘triple bottom line’ could even lead to a type of smoke and mirrors that will obscure the efforts of the less progressive firms. The author further asks as to what is the bottom line on the triple bottom line? He states that in their efforts to bring about ethical behavior, like that in anything else that they tend to do, firms should look carefully before they involve in buying. Another point to be noted is that, there should be careful reflection with regard to the best techniques as well as the tools for managers in order to ensure of their efforts to emphasize upon the ethical cultures in their companies. Ethics, whether it is in business or whether in the field of health care or politics, is really about thinking in a clear manner and understanding as to what our obligations really are and agreeing upon the principles that really make value and then abiding by those principles whenever times tend to get tough. (Ethics, jargon, and the triple bottom line) III. Compare/Contrast All the three articles show that even though the concept of Triple bottom line has become a popular approach to functioning of social and environmental commitments of the corporations, most of the companies tend to make less or even virtually no commitment at all towards the concepts of societal and environmental responsibility. As a result of the absence of any real bottom lines pertaining to societal or environmental performance for calculation, the comparability of firms is considered to be difficult and not worth-while. The authors agree that even though most large corporations now tend to create annual environmental reports along with their annual financial reports, mentioning the growth of the company with regard to several environmental benchmarks, a majority of these gains are considered to be only mere efficiency gains, which could be even profitable in several of the cases. Because the triple bottom line gives no concrete reliable methods to measure the performance levels, the concept could account to a type of smoke and mirrors that could obscure the actions of the less progressive firms. The authors of the three articles thus argue that Triple Bottom Line are best only for the purpose of promoting hypocrisy as companies are only interested in making profits and by adding the commitment towards environment and society in their company policy, they however do not make any concerted efforts towards improving the environment or society. In short, the three articles agree that because of its inbound emptiness as well as vagueness, the triple bottom line concept enables it easy for a cynical company to appear to be dedicated towards societal and environmental sustainability. 1V. Critical Evaluation: Even though the authors of the three articles state that the concept of Triple bottom line has not been made use of in the right direction, businesses are being forced upon in order to react to the societal, environmental and economic changes that are occurring in the world around them. Just as we understand that the global warming is basically changing the commercial as well as the regulatory landscape for the energy as well as the auto companies, similarly the occurrence of HIV/AIDS, SARS as well as contagious malaria is altering the fundamental business models for the pharmaceutical companies. In the ever-changing modern world, the real sustainable company would tend to have no requirement of writing checks for the purpose of charity or to provide back to the local society, as the firm’s daily functions would not tend to deprive the society, but would on the reverse tend to enrich it. (The Triple Bottom Line: How today’s Best-Run Companies are Achieving Economic, Social, and Environmental Success And How You Can Too) Conclusion To conclude, it can be said that there should be concerted efforts and research done to make triple bottom line as the model of the future and up-coming corporate firms. There should be strong regulated efforts made to create the awareness required that business firms even when contributing towards the societal and environmental concerns can tend to be financially successful. By giving equal importance for the society and environment, companies can tend to have a situation of ‘win-win’ on all sides. References Hayward, Steven F. The Triple Bottom Line: Authentic New Model or Tripartite Nonsense? Sept-Oct, 2002. Vol:12; No; 5. Religion and Liberty. http://www.acton.org/publicat/randl/article.php?id=437 MacDonald, Chris. Ethics, jargon, and the triple bottom line. The Chronicle Herald.   March 3, 2005. http://www.herald.ca/external/sobeys/march05.html Norman, Wayne; MacDonald, Chris. Getting to the Bottom of â€Å"Triple Bottom Line†. Business Ethics Quarterly, April 2004. http://www.businessethics.ca/3bl/triple_bottom_line_abstract.html Savitz, Andrew W; Weber, Karl. The Triple Bottom Line: How Today’s Best-Run Companies are Achieving Economic, Social, and Environmental Success And How You Can Too. Jossey-Bass/Wiley. September 2006. http://www.thetriplebottomline.net/ The triple bottom line. Business and Sustainable Development: A Global guide. 2007. http://www.bsdglobal.com/tools/principles_triple.asp

Effects of Noise Pollution on Mental Health of Students Essay Example for Free

Effects of Noise Pollution on Mental Health of Students Essay It is interesting that noises emanating from the various types of roadways of today are still among the most important sources of environmental noise, even though the types of noise are not those that existed in Rome, Medieval Europe, or 18th century Philadelphia. Our modern roadways (including road, rail, and air) and the products of modern technology produce increasing levels of unwanted noise of varying types and intensities throughout the day and night that disturb sleep, concentration, and other functions. (Lee Fleming ) This noise affects us without our being consciously aware of it. Unlike our eyes, which we can shut to exclude unwanted visual input, we cannot voluntarily shut our ears to exclude unwanted auditory input. Our hearing mechanisms are always â€Å"on† even when we are asleep. (Babisch 113:A14-15) 3 The noise problems of the past pale in significance when compared with those experienced by modern city dwellers; noise pollution continues to grow in extent, frequency, and severity as a result of population growth, urbanization, and technological developments. For example, within the European Common Market, 65% of the population is exposed to unhealthy levels f transportation noise. (Carlos 318:1686-1689) In New York City, maximum noise levels measured 106 dB on subway platforms and 112 dB inside subway cars. These levels have the potential of exceeding recommended exposure limits given sufficient duration of exposure. (Gershon et al. 83:802-812) In 1991, it was estimated that environmental noise increased by 10% in the decade of the 1980’ s. ( Suter ) The 2000 United States Census found that 30% of Americans complained of noise and 11% found it to be bothersome. Among those who complained, noise was sufficiently bothersome to make nearly 40% want to change their place of residence. (U. S. Census Bureau, Housing and Economic Statistics Division. ) That noise pollution continues to grow in scope, variety, and magnitude is unquestioned; it is only the extent of the growth that remains unknown. In comparison to other pollutants, the control of environmental noise has been hampered by insufficient knowledge about its effects on humans and about dose-response relationships, but this seems to be changing as more research is carried out. However, it is clear that noise pollution is widespread and imposes long-term consequences on health. (Committee on Environmental Health, American Academy of Pediatrics) In 1971, 4 3a World Health Organization (WHO) working group concluded that noise is a major threat to human well-being. That assessment has not changed in the intervening 30-plus years; if anything, the threat has intensified. The various sounds in our environment (excluding all those sounds that arise in the workplace) to which we are exposed can be viewed as being either necessary (desirable) or unnecessary (undesirable). One might consider the sounds produced in and around our homes by garbage disposals, dishwashers, clothes washers and dryers, refrigerators, furnaces, air-conditioners, yard maintenance equipment, and the many other mechanized time and labor saving devices, which we all use and enjoy, as being necessary. We are exposed to the noise of radio, television, and related technologies; children are exposed to a wide variety of noisy toys. (Axelson Jerson 76:574-578) The noise of internal combustion engines (modulated by legally required mufflers), jet engines (modulated by improved design and by altered flight paths), and train horns at grade crossings (modulated by new Federal Quiet Zone rules), might all be considered necessary. There are numerous other such examples of machines or activities that produce sounds that are tolerated because they accompany a desired activity or they serve an important societal purpose, such as the sirens of emergency vehicles. But what about sounds that accompany an undesired activity, that have no societal importance, or that we consider unnecessary? What about the sounds produced by the so-called boom-cars that are roving, pulsating noise factories? What about the uncomfortable sound levels at concerts, in theaters, and public sporting events? What 5 about the noise of slow moving train horns in urbanized areas or the early morning sounds accompanying garbage collection? What about all the noise on our streets to which buses, trolley cars, car horns, car alarms, motorcycles, and un-muffled exhaust systems contribute? What about the risks to children from noisy toys and from personal sound systems? What about the noise of barking dogs, leaf blowers, and recreational vehicles? What about the noise of low flying aircraft? In general, sounds that we deem unwanted or unnecessary are considered to be noise. Our society is beset by noise, which is intrusive, pervasive, and ubiquitous; most important of all, it is unhealthy. Most reasonable people would agree that much of the environmental noise to which we are subjected serves no useful purpose and is therefore undesirable. The variety of noise polluting devices and activities is large and seems to be growing on a daily basis, although there is no consensus about what items are useful and desirable or noise polluting and unnecessary. Domestic tranquility is one of the six guarantees in the United States Constitution, a guarantee that is echoed in some form or other in every state Constitution. In 1972, the Noise Control Act was passed by Congress, declaring, â€Å"†¦it is the policy of the United States to promote an environment for all Americans free from noise that jeopardizes health and welfare. In 1974, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimated that nearly 100 million Americans lived in areas where the daily average noise levels exceeded those identified as being safe. (Environmental Protection Agency) However, in 1982, the government abruptly terminated federal funding for the Office of Noise 6 Abatement and Control, the vehicle by which the public was to be protected from the adver se effects of noise. The lack of funds threw total responsibility for noise control to the states, which have had a spotty and generally poor record with respect to noise abatement. Shapiro ) Since the Act itself was not repealed, local and state governments may have been deterred from trying to regulate noise. Furthermore, failure to repeal the Act sent the message that noise was not an important environmental concern. As a result, in the United States, most police departments seem to be unwilling or unable to respond to noise-related problems in a way that provides any measure of genuine or timely control. Yet, in most cities, as noise pollution continues to grow some say as much as 6-fold in the past 15 years so do complaints about noise. Complaints to police and other officials about noise are among the most frequent complaints by residents in urban environments; in 1998, noise was the number one complaint to the Quality of Life Hotline in New York City. In 1996, the Federal Environmental Agency in Germany reported two out of three of its citizens had complained about excessive noise. (Bronzaft 2:1-8) The number of people exposed to unhealthy levels of noise in the United States is unquestionably greater than it was in 1974; the degree of oversight and control is unquestionably less. II. Research Body

The Differences Between Programme And Portfolio Management Management Essay

The Differences Between Programme And Portfolio Management Management Essay Portfolio and programme management has question of governance from two perspectives. The first perspective is the interconnectedness of the different project objectives in order to increase of combined project outcomes. This requires to the development of programmes, which defined by Project Management Institute (PMI) as a group of related projects, managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits and control not available from managing them individually (PMI, 2004) cited in (Blomquist Moller, 2006). The other perspective is concerned with the interrelationships among the management requirements for these multi projects in order to achieve the organizations overall business benefits. This led the need to develop portfolio management techniques which also defined by (PMI) as the centralized management of one or more portfolios, which includes identifying, prioritizing, authorizing, managing and controlling projects, programmes and other related work to achieve specific strategic busin ess objectives. (PMI, 2004) cited in (Blomquist Moller, 2006) From this concept it can be understood as a collection of projects or programmes and other work that are grouped together to facilitate effective management of that work in order to meet strategic business benefits. The projects or programmes of the portfolio may not necessary be interdependent or directly related. It is important to establish what is meant by programme management as opposed to portfolio management. The practitioners of the project management had tried to find good alignment between project management and organization strategy. Researches (Yuming, Quan Peng, 2007) in the literature has examined the idea for these strategies that should be aligned and moved from the corporate level through portfolio, programme and multi projects in a systematic manner that provides cohesion, visibility and effective communication as shown in figure 1. Figure 1: Diamond-E Model based alignment between strategy and portfolio project management adopted from (Yuming, Quan Peng, 2007) Programme Management:- In the past, the term programme has many synonyms that have been used, including multi project, portfolio of projects, macro project, and complex change (Ferns, 1991). A 3 phase for implementing programme management is suggested by (Ferns, 1991) as follows; preparatory phase, programme establishment, programme management. Basically, the concept of project management has evolved to what so called programme management and finally portfolio management. Most literatures illustrates programme management to be connected with albeit different from portfolio management (Lycett, Rassau and Danson, 2004; Turner and Muller, 2003) cited in (Blomquist Moller, 2006). However, Programme management is often perceived as the top layer of a hierarchy consisting of multi projects. The main goals of programme management is to focus on improving efficiency and effectiveness by choosing better prioritization, planning and coordination in the management of projects. Also by developing of business focus by identifies the goals of multi projects and the entire programme related to the requirements, goals, drivers and organizations work culture. Some researches on programme management have classified into three categories; programme management as an entity for organizational structure, programme management process and life cycles, and competencies for programme management. Sometimes, projects are too large to manage as a single entity. It is more convenient and effective to have work breakdown structure in a series of closely related and linked projects, each of them managed by a project manager, reporting to a programme manager (Buttrick, 2000a). PROGRAM.jpg Figure 2: A programme where each individual constituent project is used to manage a substantial work adopted from (Buttrick, 2000a) Generally, Programme management is a technique that provides the organization to coordinate multiple related projects concurrently, and cannot be controlled individually by bringing together people, activities and information in order to achieve the end goal and obtain significant benefits from them as a collection (Norton, 2008) and (Deancon, 2010). Programme may involve elements of related work outside the scope of the discrete projects in programme such as ongoing operations. A programme can only succeed if the multi-projects within the programme are completed, therefore without programme management; the projects will be uncoordinated and will not integrate into a final goal. Other authors (Haughey, 2001) has defined programme management as a group of related projects carried out in order to achieve a defined business objective and benefit. It provides specific way to control project management and covers vision, mission, aims and objectives, scope, approach, design, responsibilit ies, resourcing and benefits realization. By using well defined framework. The programme management has four basic stages; programme identification, planning, delivery and closure. These stages take the programme from beginning which must be based on strategies, right through to the final realization of a defined business objectives or benefits. 2.1 Structure of Programme Management:- The structure of Prgramme management allows controlling multi projects so they deliver effectively for the group as well as to hand the changes proactively and also it provides a framework for handling complexity and risk. Moreover, there is often a program support group to undertake the necessary coordination, administration and implement common standards (Buttrick, 2000a). It concentrates on delivering new capabilities and services, Business plan, Strategic objectives, Change and some other initiatives. For example the long term objectives can be definite by programme management, and this will help the organization to identify the multi projects that will lead in achieving these objectives and needs to think carefully about the benefits of these projects are designed to bring about. These potential benefits are considered as; meeting business needs, saving, and reducing risk. The main activities for programme management are: setting the baseline, agreeing roles and responsibilities , Programme planning, project priority, stakeholder communication, progress reporting, quality management, risk management, issue management, managing benefits and programme closure (Haughey, 2001). Some authors says that(Haughey, 2001), all programmes should have a well defined baseline from which to measure costs and benefits resulting from investment into the programme. Hence, Programme management is becoming an increasing important issue for managing changes within business which can be internal, such as increasing the level of products, or external, such as implementing a new government policy (Norton, 2008). Project team.jpg Figure 3 A typical programme management structure adopted from (Buttrick, 2000a) Project portfolio:- With a strongly increase share of companies investing in project- organized undertakings, the generally expected advantage in controllability for multi project comes along with a loss of transparency and hence effectiveness of the overall project landscape (Elonen and Artto, 2003) cited in (Jonas, 2010). So the need for a structure and proactive management of the project landscape gets increasingly important. Effective project portfolio management is becoming a key competence for organizations handling numerous projects simultaneously. A project portfolio is seen as number of projects that compete for scarce resources and are conducted under the sponsorship or management of a specific organization (Buttrick, 2000b). Refer to (Jonas, 2010) study, the measure for portfolio success should be taken at different points in time. The overall system success is consisting of three dimensions; process effectiveness, portfolio success and portfolio related corporate success. The tasks for portf olio management is consist of those related to multi project is; portfolio structuring, resource management, portfolio steering, and organizational learning and portfolio exploitation It can be argue that the portfolio management system success will be positively influenced by the extant to which these multi project portfolio tasks are executed in the company. As mentioned realer, Portfolio management is all the projects which are related or unrelated, undertaken by an organization. These can be divided into functional area such as IT, supply chain, HR, new development. With this level, it gives a complete view across the organization to understand all the multiple projects are taking place, related or unrelated. The best way for presenting this data is by business function, thereby giving a view of the projects in a specific area. Portfolio management is useful for decision makers because it provides them a total view of all initiatives taking place across the organization. This will ensure that the organization focused on what is important, helps avoiding duplication and informs strategic decision making. The activities which will be undertaken during portfolio management are: Checking strategic alignment, risk management, progress reporting. When the organization handling group of projects which are carried out by sponsorship and managed by this organization. These projects must complete for scare resources such as people, finances, time, and so on which can be available from the sponsors, since there are normally not enough resources to hand out for proposed multi projects which meets the organizations minimum requirements on certain criteria. Therefore project portfolio is the selection for periodic activity involved in selection a portfolio, from available project proposals and the multi project currently underway which must meet the organizations stated objectives in a desirable manner without exceeding available resources or effecting other constraints (Archer Ghasemzadeh, 1999) . So the portfolio management has to be pivotal in planning and controlling complex project more effectively and more efficiently and this can be achieved by implementing project portfolio management practices as a management innovation. Programme and Portfolio Management:- With the understanding the difference between programme and portfolio management, it is possible to understand what the organization needs to achieve and how programme and portfolio management fits into an organization processes and procedures. The hierarchy in this understand is shown in figure 1. Figure 1 Programme management Hierarchy adopted from (Haughey, 2001) By considering that, some multi projects are too large to manage as a single entity, so it is necessary to split them up into smaller manageable projects. And also if the whole project is too large for single project manager to handle, then, the numbers of projects managers are needed to handle the small projects. Hence smaller project with multiple project managers all designed to achieve a single long term objective for the organization. For control these groups and have an overall view a programme manager is required. 5 Conclusions:- The synopsis differences between a programme and portfolio in multi projects are; Programme is a group of projects related to the organization that are managed in a coordinated way to gain business goals that would not be possible were these projects managed independently (Ferns, 1991). Programme management concentrates on delivering; new capabilities, Business plan, Strategic objectives, Change and other initiatives. Portfolio management is all projects, related or unrelated, being carried out by this organization. Portfolio management aims to optimize the results of project portfolio to gain organization benefits and wants. Portfolio project a collection of projects, programmes and other work that are compiled together to facilitate the effective management of the same work to meet strategic business benefits. Each one has a special role to play and needs to be managed differently (Deancon, 2010). programme and portfolio management has been designed to fulfill nearly all organizations individual and multi projects to succeed in todays competitive climate.